Abraham Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation :: American History Research Papers

Abraham Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation Until Abraham Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on 22 family line 1862, the Presidents enunciation of Civ il War aims centered squarely upon the restoration of the Union, and purposefuly omited the inclusion of the abolition of slavery. Dismantling the institution of slavery was not his eventual(prenominal) objective, and Lincoln was forced to pursue a war strategy tha t would not push the slaveholding b score -states into the open arms of the Confederacy. General buns C. Fremont, however, living up to his reputation for impulsive acts and liberal interpretations of his own authority, proclaimed the freedom of any slave c onfiscated under his command in Missouri. This order ran counter to Lincolns war strategy and threatened to deliver Kentucky and other border - states to the Confederacy. Nevertheless, although Fr6monts decision was injudicious and unconstitutional accord ing to Lincoln, the conditions in Mis souri, the strategic importance of holding that state, and the latitude given by the inistration to Fremont in his western department command, indicate that his order may have had military and governmental value, but th at it was il timed. As a result, Lincoln did not censure or relieve Fremont for this particular act, but congenialy asked him to amend his declaration to avert unwanted political and military consequences. Lincolns belief in the utility of emancipati on as a tool to defeat the southernmost was demonstrated a year later with the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation.Expressions of Character Who was John C. Fremont?In the course of a lifetime, each person wil act and oppose in various ways when he or s he is confronted with particular circumstances and situations. While individual expressions of behavior can be misleading, paterns of behavior can reveal true character and values. Fremont is no exception. Long before he proclaimed the slaves of Missou ris Confe derate sympathizers to be free, Fremont frequently acted and interacted in a manner that indicated an aversion to authority, an enduring pride, and an impulsive and independent nature. The strength of these characteristics wil be made clear in a discussion of his emancipation order, but setoff it is necessary to examine a selection of Fr6monts earlier experiences so that the order can be put in beter perspective.Expeditions. Fremont is best known for his federal agency as an instrument of America n Empire as he surveyed and mapped the burgeoning American frontier.

A Comparison of On the Road and Crying of Lot 49 Essay -- comparison c

In both Jack Kerouacs, On the Road, and Thomas Pynchons blatant of stage set 49 the characters act in a aberrant manner outside of social norms. This in turn leads to a deviant sub-cultural group which competes with the commit authorities for power. Deviance in both novels is usually boundd as a certain type of behaviour, such as an inebriated professor verbalise on in a lecture hall filled with students or a group of teenagers frolicking naked in a city park on a hot and sunny afternoon. However, deviance can also encompass both ideas and attributes (Sagarin, 1975). The primary understanding of deviance rests in the reactions of observers, something becomes deviant because an individual, group or society takes offense and reacts negatively (Cohen, 1966, Lofland, 1969). These negative reactions occur because onlookers interpret what they see and hear as being bad, insane, strange, immoral, non-conforming, or wrong. Negative responses do more than define deviance they serve as m echanisms of social control and power. In examining these novels from a sociological perspective, both Kerouac and Pynchon examine conflicts between mainstream society and sub-cultural groups. The deviant behaviour, thoughts, and attributes observed from the characters within the novels provide a strong argument for Austin Turks conflict theory of deviance, which examines power and cultural conflict as a basis for deviant behaviour. To begin, Austin Turks conflict theory of crime divides society into two groups those with power the authorities and those without power the subjects. In Pynchons novel The Crying Of Lot 49, this is realized by contrasting Pierce Inverarity, a California real estate mogul to those of low social economic class... ...sh-Catholic background, and his resemblance to a Fitzgerald hero, with a tragic death and foul dust floating in the wake of his dreams (153). However, both of the novels express those subjects living by values beyond the social norms as having some power to change societal norms. By examining Turks theory of conflict between authorities and subjects, it becomes apparent the deviant behaviour observed from the characters in both novels is an influencing method of power to alter cultural and societal norms. WORKS CITED Dugdale, John. Thomas Pynchon Allusive Parables of Power. New York St.Martin, 1990 Gomme, Ian McDermid. The Shadow Line Deviance and Crime in Canada. Toronto HBJ 1993. Kerouac, Jack. On The Road. New York Penguin books, 1955 Pynchon, Thomas. The Crying Of Lot 49. New York Harper & Row, 1966

An Assessment of the Poetry of Robert Frost Essay -- Poetry Robert Lee

Nature is beautiful in e truly aspect, but as record changes with every(prenominal)(prenominal) season, beauty and innocence in human life is much the same as the years progress. Robert Lee Frost uses nature in much(prenominal) a profound approach every aspect of nature can someway correlate with any characteristic of life. Whether it is the beauty in nature signifying the feel and happiness that every person experiences, or it be the traumatic liberationes and disappointments that may lead to ultimate failure or destruction, Robert Frost illustrates life, fill in and loss in the most natural and beautiful way feasible. His style is uniquely his own, and his themes are ones that many people can relate to on countless levels, which is what do Frost so popular during his lifetime, and has continued four decades after his death. Robert Frost was born March 26 1874 in San Francisco where he spent the introductory football team years of his life until his father died. It was the n that he moved with his family to Lawrence, Massachusetts. While in high school in Lawrence, Frost fell in love with Elinor White, they became engaged and married in 1896 (the same year that their son Elliott was born). After withdrawing from Harvard in 1897, the Frosts moved to a farm in Methuen, Massachusetts, and began elevation poultry. Three years later Elliott died, along with Frosts mother. Frost and his family then bought a farm in Derry, where they settled down, and Frost began writing. Robert and Elinor Frost had threesome more children before losing another infant in 1907. In 1912, Frost became irritated with his failure at success, and moved his family to England. This move proved to be flourishing when Frosts first book A Boys Will was published in 1913, followed by North of Boston in 1914 twain books appeared in the United States as well by the time that the Frost family returned in 1915. In 1938 Frost lost his wife to illness. New Hampshire garnered Frost the fir st of his unmatched four Pulitzer Prizes for poetry, followed by Frosts Collected Poems in 1930, A Further Range in 1936, and A Witness Tree in 1942. Frosts crowning public moment was his recitation of The Gift Outright at John F. Kennedys inauguration in January of 1960. He died on January 29, 1963. Robert Frost lived a very long and often tragic life. He suffered unreasonable guilt, and blamed himself for everything that went wrong. Robert Frost loved his f... ... to gain wisdom. This wisdom should not be what the speaker system feels in the finis line, that innocence is great and loss of it is to be mourned. This wisdom is in the title of the poem Nothing Gold Can Stay. Here is Frost telling the speaker to understand that this is the natural way, and so there is no point in fighting it or being sad about it. In fact, within every leaf is just a leaf...meaning without the gold there is no green, without dawn there is no day, without death there is no birth. It is just the way i t is and so we better love it. Robert Frosts poems are beautifully written, and offer such a deep insight into life, and nature. His work connects to readers on virtually every level of consciousness, and generates readers to understand that their feelings are not rare. Everyone experiences the same emotions, and must overcome many of the same situations in life but his poems almost bring the reek of possibility. Frost may have become popular at the dawn of the nineteenth century, his life may have ended almost half a century ago, but his poems are still as distinguished as they were before his death, and they will continue to be popular for many years to come.

Inclusion in the Classroom Essay -- essays papers Education Special Ne

Inclusion in the classroomInclusion can be defined as the act of creation present at regular gentility classes with the support and services needed to successfully achieve educational goals. Inclusion in the bookworm environment benefits some(prenominal) the disabled student and the non-disabled student in obtaining better life skills. By including all students as much as possible in general or regular education classes all students can learn to work cooperatively, learn to work with different kinds of people, and learn how to help people in tasks. As Stainback, Stainback, East, and Sapon-Shevin (1994) have a bun in the oven noted, ...the goal of inclusion in schools is to create a world in which all people are knowledgeable about and confirmatory of all former(a) people, (Whitworth, 1999)Of the many benefits aspects for children placed in inclusion classrooms, there is none more important than the academic benefits. One way that students benefit is by learning skills of ind ependence. supernumerary needs students learn to depend on themselves first and then ask for help when they really need it. In the inclusive mise en scene there wint be as much of an opportunity for teachers or aids to assist all of the students. All children are taught through naked as a jaybird and sometimes change methods when put into an inclusion classroom. Teachers , through training, will learn different methods of teaching concepts that may make it easier for students to understand. Difficult concepts in math, such as volume, may be taught in a new and easy to understand way. In a study conducted by Johns Hopkins University (Success For All) it was determined that in an inclusion place setting assessments showed improved meter reading performance for all students, the most dramatic improvements o... ...d students gain better life skills and a better understanding of others.Reference ListWalker, K. E., & Ovington, J. A. (1998, kinfolk 6). Inclusion and its set up on students. Electric Journal for Inclusive Education, Vol. 1 Ed. 2. Retrieved October 31, 2002, from http//www.cehs.wright. edu/prenick/JournalArchives/Winter-1999/inclusion.htmlWhitworth, J. W. (1998). A model for inclusive teacher preparation. Electric Journal for Inclusive Education, Vol. 1 Ed. 2. Retrieved October 31, 2002, from http//www.cehs.wright.edu/prenick/ JounalArchives/Winter-1999/whitworth.htmlStout, Katie S.(2001, November 5). Special education inclusion. Wisconsin Education Association Council.Retrieved November 28, 2002, from http//www.weac.org/resource/june96/speced.htmSpecial education in the regular classroom.(1969). New York, NY The John Day Company, Inc. Inclusion in the Classroom Essay -- essays papers Education Special NeInclusion in the ClassroomInclusion can be defined as the act of being present at regular education classes with the support and services needed to successfully achieve educational goals. Inclusion in the scholastic envir onment benefits both the disabled student and the non-disabled student in obtaining better life skills. By including all students as much as possible in general or regular education classes all students can learn to work cooperatively, learn to work with different kinds of people, and learn how to help people in tasks. As Stainback, Stainback, East, and Sapon-Shevin (1994) have noted, ...the goal of inclusion in schools is to create a world in which all people are knowledgeable about and supportive of all other people, (Whitworth, 1999)Of the many benefits aspects for children placed in inclusion classrooms, there is none more important than the academic benefits. One way that students benefit is by learning skills of independence. Special needs students learn to depend on themselves first and then ask for help when they really need it. In the inclusive setting there wont be as much of an opportunity for teachers or aids to assist all of the students. All children are taught t hrough new and sometimes improved methods when put into an inclusion classroom. Teachers , through training, will learn different methods of teaching concepts that may make it easier for students to understand. Difficult concepts in math, such as volume, may be taught in a new and easy to understand way. In a study conducted by Johns Hopkins University (Success For All) it was determined that in an inclusion setting assessments showed improved reading performance for all students, the most dramatic improvements o... ...d students gain better life skills and a better understanding of others.Reference ListWalker, K. E., & Ovington, J. A. (1998, September 6). Inclusion and its effects on students. Electric Journal for Inclusive Education, Vol. 1 Ed. 2. Retrieved October 31, 2002, from http//www.cehs.wright. edu/prenick/JournalArchives/Winter-1999/inclusion.htmlWhitworth, J. W. (1998). A model for inclusive teacher preparation. Electric Journal for Inclusive Education, Vol. 1 Ed. 2. Retrieved October 31, 2002, from http//www.cehs.wright.edu/prenick/ JounalArchives/Winter-1999/whitworth.htmlStout, Katie S.(2001, November 5). Special education inclusion. Wisconsin Education Association Council.Retrieved November 28, 2002, from http//www.weac.org/resource/june96/speced.htmSpecial education in the regular classroom.(1969). New York, NY The John Day Company, Inc.

Compensation for Living Human Organ Donation is Unethical Essay

Compensation for Living Human Organ Donation is Unethical As technology continues to progress the feasibility of pipe organ transplantation becomes a commonplace. It is very common for organs to be donated after one passes if it is the wishes of the deceased. As the supply of organs from the deceased is greatly outnumbered by the number of patients on waitlists living donors becomes an issue. Many times a relative or close friend is allowing to demo up an organ to help scavenge a life. The question is Is it ethical to accept a monetary payment in exchange for an organ to save a life? Organ donation started out as simply donation or the act by which a person voluntarily transfers the epithet to a thing of which be is the owner, from himself to a nonher, without any consideration, as a free gift (Dictionary.com). A person is giving out of the goodness of their heart donors did not expect anything in return for giving a part of them to help save a life. In Organ G rinders, Artie makes a living from selling she fill again able fluids such as, blood, plasma, and semen. Artie is asked in the book to give one of his testicles in exchange for money. He willingly agrees, and the operation proves to be a success in the book. This brings up the argument if it is morally ethical to sell your organs for a profit. Currently in most Western Countries including the European Union, The United States, and China, statutes have been retch in place forbidding the purchase and sale of human organs (Cameron 724). Overall as a whole society looks at human organ sales as unethical and morally wrong. There have been a few proposals to having a successful way of buying and selling organs hardly as we sell our bodily fluids. T... ...uld be unmoral and unethical to carry out. Even with the technology available today, the humanistic nature of people to be greedy will overcome their kindheartedness to give the gift of life to one another. The resale of human organs from living donors should continue to remain illegal around the world. Works Cited.Cameron, J. Stewart and Hoffenberg, Raymond. The morals of organ transplantation reconsidered Paid organ donation and the use of executed prisoners as donors. Kidney International. Vol 55. p724-732. 30 November 2003.Howards, Lawrence A. Ethics of Organ Donation. JSOnline Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. 20 June 1999. p4. 30 November 2003. http//www.jsonline.com/ awake(p)/column/jun99/howard62099.aspNew Safeguards for Living Organ Donors. ConsumerAffairs.com. 25 April 2003. p3. 30 November 2003.

Compensation for Living Human Organ Donation is Unethical Essay

Compensation for Living Human Organ Donation is Unethical As technology continues to progress the feasibility of organ transplantation becomes a commonplace. It is very common for organs to be donated after unmatchable passes if it is the wishes of the deceased. As the supply of organs from the deceased is greatly outnumbered by the number of patients on waitlists brisk donors becomes an issue. Many times a relative or close friend is willing to give up an organ to help save a life. The enquiry is Is it ethical to accept a m unmatchedtary payment in exchange for an organ to save a life? Organ donation started out as simply donation or the act by which a person voluntarily transfers the title to a thing of which be is the owner, from himself to another, without any consideration, as a free gift (Dictionary.com). A person is giving out of the goodness of their heart donors did not expect anything in return for giving a expound of them to help save a life. In Orga n Grinders, Artie makes a living from selling she replenish able fluids such as, blood, plasma, and semen. Artie is asked in the book to give one of his testicles in exchange for money. He willingly agrees, and the operation proves to be a success in the book. This brings up the argument if it is morally ethical to sell your organs for a profit. Currently in most Western Countries including the European Union, The United States, and China, statutes throw been put in place forbidding the purchase and sale of military man organs (Cameron 724). Overall as a whole society looks at human organ sales as unethical and morally wrong. There have been a few proposals to having a successful way of buying and selling organs just as we sell our bodily fluids. T... ...uld be unmoral and unethical to stake out. Even with the technology available today, the humanistic nature of people to be greedy will overcome their kindheartedness to give the gift of life to one another. The res ale of human organs from living donors should continue to remain illegal around the world. Works Cited.Cameron, J. Stewart and Hoffenberg, Raymond. The ethics of organ transplantation reconsidered Paid organ donation and the make use of of executed prisoners as donors. Kidney International. Vol 55. p724-732. 30 November 2003.Howards, Lawrence A. Ethics of Organ Donation. JSOnline Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. 20 June 1999. p4. 30 November 2003. http//www.jsonline.com/alive/column/jun99/howard62099.aspNew Safeguards for Living Organ Donors. ConsumerAffairs.com. 25 April 2003. p3. 30 November 2003.

Renewable Energys Role In Future Energy Security Environmental Sciences Essay

readiness has become the lifeblood of the recent economic organisations, without which the initiation entrust come to a practical deadlock it is important to the betterment of life conditions nigh the globe. For dumbfounded demesnes, dependable pushing fuels the engineerings and serve that enrich and extend life. powerfulness force-outs advanced computing machines, improved transit, expanded communications, up-to-date medical equipment and processs, and much to a greater extent. For developing states, spread outing dependable and subaltern-cost supplies of expertness supports and even accelerates alterations that improve and salvage lives. Reliable animation agencies expanded patience, modern agribusiness, increased trade and improved transit. These be constructing blocks of economic outgrowth that create the occupations that help people escape poorness and make better lives for their kids. capital of Chile Exxon As the population of the human beings additio ns and the economical state of aff carrys of developing states better, authoritiess are confronting the enormous challenge of run intoing the universe s turning competency demands date cut downing the impact of postal code usage on the environment. Today, approximately 1.5 billion people lack entree to electricity Santiago Exxon . as yet more lack modern cookery and warming fuels.It is expected that the envisionetary vigour demand in 2030 will be about 35 per centum loftyer than in 2005, where growing will be led by rapid enlargement in non-OECD states much(pre nominative) as China and India, where energy use will arouse by about 65 per centum. At the same clip, demand will be peculiarly intense for electric power coevals, which will consist 40 per centum of planetary energy demand by 2030.Figure 1. orbiculate Energy Demand 2005-2030 by Type Santiago Exxon Electricity will play such an of import function in the cultivation of the universe traveling frontward, that any lethargy in the growing of the electricity industry could throw one state further behind other bring outs in industrial, economic and societal growing. It is a primary input concomitantor on which the advancement of the economic arranging of a state depends. Full use of other input particularors, such as drill force, unload including irrigation, and capital-related resources of an economic system depend upon the handiness of electricity Santiago Hindu . In other words, it is non merely a cardinal input factor exclusively it besides plays a strategic function in use to the full the other resources towards the advancement of the economic system.Figure 2. Global Energy Demand by empyrean Santiago Exxon In add-on, electricity has become an native factor in bettering the societal conditions and public assistance of people. It is the most indispensable and critical ingredient for the growing of the state in the societal, industrial, commercial, and agricultural areas. The function of power sector in economic organic evolution is so enormous that economic experts frequently set up a one-to-one correspondence between energy and economic development, that s why it has been good recognized as the industry of industries or the as the mother industry Santiago Hindu .Because of its importance, the electricity industry deserves precedence in development and necessary support for sustain cleverness during the planning procedure of authoritiess.1.2. DebatableAs outlined in the experienceder subdivision, energy has become important in the development of states around the universe, both economically and socially. The importance of energy in the futurity scheme of states has led to the creative activity of the term Energy pledge , which is relates to the ability of each state to vouch the energy proviso for its dwellers towards the hereafter. The World Energy Assessment study defines energy security as the uninterrupted handiness of energy in varied s ignifiers in sufficient measures at sensible monetary fosters ( Adrian 2 ) .Several considerations have motivated states to follow an Energy Security policyEnergy must be supplied to all citizens, if non an unsustainable state of affairs could originateEnergy up to a certain degree ( lifeline energy ) is a staple fibre necessity and should be provided to anyone, whether they mess pay for it or non, if non environmental debasement will happenEffective demand ( demand approve by ability to pay at market determined monetary values ) must be met to the full, if non instability between rich and hapless will be createdSafe, convenient energy is more desirable than traditional fuels due to wellness impactEnergy should be on hand(predicate) at all clip, if non high cost on economic system and damaging consequence to human well worldIf demand is non met at competitory monetary values, economic system will be affectedIn the yesteryear, energy security was seen as the security of oil s upplies, whereas more late OECD states have complicated the four following subjects in their energy policies ( Adrian 1 ) Diverseness of energy suppliesDiverseness of oil importsReduced dependance on Middle EastLow oil monetary value volatilityApart from these, authoritiess are planing energy security programs that include the usage of renewable beginnings of energy chiefly because of two groundsThe negative environmental personal effects that fossil fuels are doing the environmentThe fortuity of a oil and scorch depletion in the approaching old agesHarmonizing to the Energy Watch Group s 2007 study, stainless universe proved plus likely oil militias could be between 854 billion and 1,255 billion barrels. This sum could provide universe energy demand for 30 to 40 old ages if demand growing were to halt immediatly. On the other manus, harmonizing to the US EIA 2007 everyplaceview, at the electric current planetary sum energy ingestion rate, in that respect is adequate sear to cede the full planet with all of its energy for 37 old ages, presuming 0 % growing in demand.Even though the possibility of fossil fuels depletion could go true in the long tally, there is a much bigger job that we are already sing today Global Warming. This term referes to the environmental impact caused by the inordinate combustion of fossil fuels. This consequence is believed, by several(prenominal) scientists, to be the consequence of a strengthening of the babys room consequence largely due to human-produced additions in atmospheric nursery flubes.Harmonizing to the International Plant Protection Convention ( IPPC ) , the temperatures increased sslowly from 1900 to 2000 and could increase exponentially between 2000 and 2100. A direct effect of this temperature changes is the runing glaciers and the sea degree rise fluctuations in the sea degree can hold really destructive effects and alteration perceptibly the repose-sea boundary.Beginning Projections IPPC study 1995 and 2001As a consequence of the current and future drawbacks that fossil fuels face, it is really of import that authoritiess include the usage of renewable beginnings of energy in their energy security scheme traveling frontward.1.3. AimThe present work intends to make a scheme that could vouch India s energy security towards 2030 by utilizing renewable beginnings energy to carry by it. This scheme will suggest a class of action for India in the approaching old ages, finding what types of renewable energy would be economically, politically, socially and technologically executable.The first deal out of the papers analyzes the current socio-economic state of affairs in India, the current energy industry in footings of supply and demand, the energy mentality towards 2030, the energy resources in the state and the different chances and jobs in the hereafter of energy in India. The 2nd portion of the papers will develop a scheme of renewable energy beginnings based on the relevant findin gs of the first portion.1.4. JustificationIndia is one of the four BRIC states, which is a group acronym that refers to the states of Brazil, Rusia, Indian and China that are expected to go the four most dominant economic systems by the twelvemonth 2050 as they encompass over 25 % of the universe s land coverage and 40 % of the universe s population and keep a combined GDP ( PPP ) of 15.435 trillion dollars generator . These four states are among the biggest and fast-paced turning emerging markets.With a population of around 1.1 billion, India is the universe s 2nd most thickly settled state and ranks fifth in the universe in footings of primary energy ingestion, accounting for about 3.5 per cent of the universe s commercial energy demand. With a GDP growing rate of around 8 % , India is presently one of the fastest turning economic systems of the universe. Even by 2001, around 44 % of house-holds did non hold entree to electricity ( Census of India, 2001 ) . The state continue s to confront electricity deficits, with an overall power deficit of 8.4 % and a top outing power deficit of 12.3 % in 2005/06. Despite gradual urbanisation, around 72 % of the state s population resided in rural countries in 2001.Energy demands of several families, particularly those in the rural countries, continue to be met chiefly by inefficient traditional energy signifiers like fuel wood, harvest residue, and carnal waste. These fuels are non merely inconvenient to utilize and do indoor air pollution, however besides adversely affect the wellness of adult females and kids who are exposed to the usage of these fuels.Especifically, by 2030 India is expected to go the 3rd largest planetary energy consumer, hereditary Japan and Russia, due to population growing and lifting income degrees ( Madan ) . At the same clip, dependance on imported energy increased from 17.85 % of Entire ancient Commercial Energy Supply ( TPCES ) in 1991 to about 30 % in 2004-05. Oil imports really acco unted for 72 % of entire oil ingestion in 04-05. Almost three living quarters of this proceeded from 5 states merely, all turn up in parts considered reasonably unstable ( Expert Committee, 2005 ) . Coal and gas imports are besides likely to increase over clip, as domesticated coal production is unable to provide demand and coal supplies are likely to run out in 40 old ages.The state s demands of fossil fuels are expected to achieve 337 to 462 Mt of oil, 99 to 184 Mtoe of gas and 602 to 954 Mtoe of coal ( Integrated Energy Policy 2006 ) . The International Energy Association undertakings that planetary dodo fuel supplies will increase by merely 1.7 % , intending India s portion in 2030 would run from 5.8 % to 8 % for oil, 2.4 % to 4.5 % for raw(a) gas, and 16.7 % to 26.5 % for coal ( see Figure 1 ) .Figure 3. Projections for India originate from the Planning Commission presuming a GDP growing rate of 8 % , and the universe projections are 2030 Numberss from IEA REFERENCE Additio nal to the big energy demand that India has, the state faces other political, market and estimable hazards that could endanger its way towards a successful energy security plan. First, wars, work stoppages or political turbulences in the exportation states could drastically cut down oil supplies for India. Second, sudden additions in oil monetary values may do rising prices, slow economic system and impose adversity on the Indian population. Last, proficient breaks or accidents could interrupt the supply of energy.The diverse challenges that India faces towards the securement of their energy demands, every bit good as the of import function that the state represents in the universe s energy ingestion in the hereafter are some(a) of the grounds that have encouraged us to set about the present work.The development of a thorough analysis to find the chief jobs in the current policy and proviso of energy in India, every bit good as a elaborate scheme to develop renewable energy beginni ngs to fulfil the future demand of energy for the state, are necessary to vouch the uninterrupted public assistance of the state s growing and life quality of its dwellers.Chapter II State Review2.1. General MentalityThe Republic of India is a located in reciprocal ohm Asia, bounded by the Indian Ocean on the South, the Arabian Sea on the West, and the Bay of Bengal on the E and it is bordered by Pakistan to the West. It is the seventh-largest state by geographical country, the second-most thickly settled state with over 1.18 billion people, and the most thickly settled democracy in the universe.In footings of geographics, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers and is place to the Himalayas, the planet s highest mountains, which now abut India in the North and the north-east. Major Himalayan-origin rivers that well range through India include the Ganges and the Brah mathematical functionutra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. India s clime is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons. The Himalayas prevent cold central Asian Katabatic air current from blowing in, maintaining the majority of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a important function in pulling the moisture-laden.The Indian economic system is the universe s 11th largest economic system by nominal GDP and the 4th largest by acquire power para. Since the debut of market-based economic reforms in 1991, India has become one of the fastest turning major economic systems in the universe nevertheless, the state continues to confront several poorness, illiteracy, corruptness and public wellness related challenges. India is classified as a freshly industrialised state and is one of the four BRIC nations. It is a atomic munition province and has the third-largest standing armed force in the universe, while its military outgo ranks tenth in the universe. India is a regional power in South Asia.India is federation with a parliamentary signifier of authorities, governed under the Constitution of India. It is a constitutional democracy and representative democracy, in which bulk regulation is tempered by minority rights protected by jurisprudence. It has operated under a multi-party system for most of its history. For most of the old ages since independency, the federal authorities has been led by the Indian subject area Congress ( INC ) . Politicss in the provinces have been dominated by national parties like the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) and assorted regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, excluding two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary bulk.2.2. Demographics2.2.1. PopulationCurrent population, vs universeExpected Population, vs universeGrowth rateGraph2.2.1. Population Densityrural V urbanmap of population denseness and expected2.3. EconomyThe economic system of India is the 11HYPERLINK hypertext pitch protocol //en.wikipedia.org /wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_ ( nominal ) thHYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_ ( nominal ) largest economic system in the universe by nominal GDP ( Gross Domestic Product ) with 3,75 trillion $ . This fact can be misdirecting in footings of dwellers wealth since the GDP per capita ( PPP ) is merely 3,100 $ ranking in the 163th place out of 227 states. However, India is an emerging economic power with a really big sum of homo and vivid resources. The hereafter of the state s economic system is predicted more than auspicious. Economists expect that India s economic system will be among the taking 1s, while harmonizing to the BRIC study ( published by Goldman Sachs ) , India will be the 2nd largest economic system behind China by 2043 hypertext transfer protocol //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India . Harmonizing to these anticipations, the one-year income per capital will follow a clear upward tendency for the underment ioned old ages, as depicted beneathRankStateGDP per capita ( PPP )161Montserrat3,400162Philippines3,300163India3,100164Mongolia3,100165Vietnam2,900Beginning The World FactbookYearAnnual income per capita ( ? )2006329200741620084682009539201062720151,05220201,13220301,161Beginning ( inquire Julien )Today India is a state with a developing unfastened market economic system nevertheless the marks of its past stiff policies still exist. This development began in the early 1990s when controls on foreign trade and investing became more supple and helped the state speed up its growing. Since 1997 there has been a 7 % one-year growing owing economic liberalisation.As mentioned above, India s economic system includes village agriculture every bit good as modern farthermostming along with handcrafts, many modern industries and a big figure of services. Even though more than half of the work force is occupied with agribusiness, services are the major beginning of its economic growing, whi ch is merely 1/3 of its labour, force but is accountable for more than half of India s end product. India has become a major exporter of information engineering services and package due to its educated slope talking population. In 2009 its one-year GDP fell to 6.5 % because of an industrial lag in 2008, which was followed by the planetary fiscal crisis. Nevertheless, India still retained the 2nd highest growing in the universe among the major economic systems. The planetary fiscal crisis did non hold a terrible impact on India s growing because of the cautious banking policies and its low dependance on exports. In 2008 due to funding plan for fuel and fertilisers along with a debt release plan for husbandmans and a occupation warrant plan for rural workers India s financial shortage increased well.India has still to run into some long-run challenges which include its extended poorness, the limited employment chances and its deficiency of basic and higher instruction. India s turnin g population over the old ages will decline the societal economic and environmental jobs it faces.2.4. Energy2.4.1. Current and Future DemandIn the recent old ages, India s energy ingestion has been change magnitude at one of the fastest rates in the universe due to population growing and economic development. Primary commercial energy demand grew at the rate of six per cent between 1981 and 2001 ( Planing Commission 2002 ) . India ranks fifth in the universe in footings of primary energy ingestion J1 , accounting for approximately 3.5 % of the universe commercial energy demand in the twelvemonth 2003.In malice of the low per capita energy ingestion degrees, and the fact that a big subdivision of population does non even hold entree to energy signifiers of equal quality and measure, India s entire primary energy supply has increased from around 150 mtoe in 1970 to 438 mtoe in 2001/02. Furthermore, the portion of non-commercial energy has decreased from 59 % in 1970 to 32 % in 200 1, with families switching to the cleansing means and efficient commercial energy.Assorted estimations indicate that India would necessitate to increase its primary energy supply by at least 3 to 4 multiplication and its electricity coevals capac-ity by 5 to 6 times of the 2003/04 degrees, by the twelvemonth 2031. The analysis based on the MARKAL theoretical account, indicates that under a 8 % GDP growing sce-nario with current programs and policies of the regimen, commercial energy demands would in-crease to 2108 mtoe by 2031/32. J3 Beginning J3 By 2031, TERI ( The Energy and Resources Institute ) estimates indicate a dependence of 78 % for coal ( over a billion metric tons ) , 93 % for oil ( 700 million metric tons ) and 67 % for gas ( 93 BCM ) with current estimations of future handiness of autochthonal energy.2.4.2. Use by SectorOn the demand side, the industrial sector continues to stay the largest consumer, accounting for more than 40 % of the entire commercial energy, f ollowed by the ecstasy sector. J3 Beginning J3 2.4.3. Consumption by Type of SourceThe primary mix of India s energy ingestion is about 56 % coal, 33 % oil, 8 % natural gas, with atomic and hydropower combined taking a 3 % portion.Beginning Teri 2000-2001Coal Coal production increased by 2.6 % in 2001 from the old twelvemonth, making 161 million toe, or 343 million metric tons. While India exports a little sum of coal to nearby states, it has evolved into a important importer of coal as economic growing and domestic supply constriction have stimulated Indian demand for imported coal. India imported 18 million metric tons in 1999, largely coking coal, or 6 % of its coal demands.Oil Oil production has been reasonably stable since 1995. Production in 2001 was 36 million metric tons, or 782,000 barrels per xxiv hours. India imports about 1.3 million barrels of rough oil per twenty-four hours, or about two tierces of its petroleum oil demands.Natural Gas Natural gas represents a turn ing constituent of the primary energy mix. In 2001, gas production reached 26 bcmor 23 million toe.Hydro and Nuclear Hydropower and atomic have been bring with a minority portion of the energy mix ( up to 4 % ) .Energy Conversion The crude oil merchandise supply has seen a rise since 1999 with new refinery capacity ( 10 million metric tons by terminal of 2002 ) added to the system.Sum installed power coevals capacity is 100GW, 71 % of which is generated by coal, 25 % from hydro, 3 % from atomic and 1 % from air current. ? ? ? ? ? ? ?2.4.4. EfficiencyHarmonizing to World Resources Institute ( WRI ) , India s electricity grid has the highest transmittal and distribution losingss in the universe a whopping 27 % . Numbers published by assorted Indian authorities bureaus put that figure at 30 % , 40 % and greater than 40 % . This is attributed to proficient losingss ( grid s inefficiencies ) and larceny.It has been estimated that around 25,000 megawatts ( MW ) of capacity can be crea ted through energy efficiency in the electricity sector entirely, with the maximal possible being seen in the agribusiness and industrial sectors.Therefore it is of import to look into the assorted facets that involve these inefficiencies and larcenies and follow steps to forestall them.2.4.5. Resources2.4.5.2. Non-RenewableBing a state with extremely increasing energy demands, India is presently based on conventional resources such as coal, oil and natural for power production. Coal is the primary non-renewable resource of energy in India. The state has some of the largest militias of coal in the universe ( about 209 billion tones of the known geological militias in 1999 ) Yiannis 6 . The major coal militias are located in West Bengal, Orissa, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Bihar, as it is depicted in the mapBeginning hypertext transfer protocol //www.mapsofindia.comIn footings of oil resources India is hapless and imports oil to run into i ts energy demands. Oil and Gas diary provinces that, the state had about 5.6 billion barrels of proved oil militias on January 2010 Yiannis 5 . This is the 2nd largest sum in the Asia part behind China. Harmonizing to the same diary India had about 38 trillion three-dimensional pess ( Tcf ) of proved natural gas militias at the same clip. The most of India s natural gas production comes from the western offshore parts. The onshore Fieldss in Assam, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat provinces are besides major beginnings of gas production.2.4.5.2. RenewableThe term Renewable resources refers to those resources that get replaced by natural procedures at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of ingestion by human Wikipedia . India s geographic location in the universe represents a great advantage for the development of different renewable energy beginnings. For case, energy engineerings like biomass, water-hydro, air current and solar nowadays the greatest potency.In footings of solar the state has the best resources worldwide since it is the cheery state of the universe 1 , with 260-300 clear cheery yearss per twelvemonth. It has besides one-year mean temperature runing from 25 to 27.5 AC 1 . As shown in the map, the warmest topographic points of India are located in the south-east seashore ensuing in a strong solar potency.Beginning hypertext transfer protocol //www.mapsofindia.comThe mean strength of solar radiation received on India is 200 MW/km2 2 . Taking under consideration the land country of the state is 3,287,000A km2 from which merely the 410,907 km2 can theoretically be used for solar energy installings 2 , this leads to a sum of 8,218,140 MW. This sum of power can be used for assorted applications, from solar thermic power workss down to domestic coevals such as solar H2O warmer.Equally far as wind power is concerned India is the 5th largest manufacturer in the universe with entire power of 11,806 MW 3 . The air current power developm ent started on 1990 and till today it follows a singular growing. In footings of air current resources and weave possible, India has strong monsoons. In summer clip cool, humid southwestern United States air moves from the ocean towards the land, whereas in winter cool, dry air with north-east way moves the other manner around. The air current power denseness map of India given below, presents the topographic points with the strongest air current potency in the state.Beginning hypertext transfer protocol //www.cwet.tn.nic.in/html/departments_wpdmap.html The provinces of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan have amongst others really strong air current potency and the lasting installing in air current farms are shown in the tabular array 4 StateGross Potential ( MW )Entire Capacity ( MW )Andhra Pradesh8,968136Gujarat10,6451,864Karnataka11,5311,473Kerala1,17128Madhya Pradesh1,019229Maharashtra4,5842,078Orissa255Rajasthan4,8581,088Tamil Nadu5,5304,907Others4Entire48,56111, 807Beginning Indian Wind Energy Association ( As of March 2010 ) .Hydropower is another signifier of non-conventional energy in which India has plentifulness available resources and therefore has developed to a great extent. Hydropower is chiefly exploited through dikes, reservoirs and hydroelectric power workss, which send advantage of the river and rainfall Waterss. As it is depicted in the one-year rainfall map below, the north-eastern portion of India which includes the parts Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, and besides on the West seashore between Mumbai and Mahe are those which receive the dominant sum of rain annually. Some of the primary hydroelectric power workss utilized by India are Bihar, Punjab, Uttaranchal, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim and Gujarat. Sing the sum of rainfall annually in the cardinal and South of Bangalore it is apparent that the rainfalls occur from May to November.Beginning hypertext transfer protocol //www.mapsofindia.comDu ring these showery seasons hydro energy could be utilized. Amongst others, Small hydro ( 2 MW-30 MW ) is the most usual renewable energy beginning for energy production. In India hydro is classified into 4 other classs ( apart from Small ) , Pico ( 1 kW-10 kilowatt ) , Micro ( 10 kW-100 kilowatt ) , Mini ( 100 KW-2 MW ) .Last but non least biomass has ever been an indispensable renewable beginning in India. Bing an agricultural state, it has immense measure of biomass. Almost 32 % of the primary energy usage is produced by treating stuffs from agricultural, industrial and forest operations 2 . More specifically mush, wood, paper and manure in farm animal residues along with sugar cane bagasse are amongst others the most popular and available resources for bring forthing energy in India. The state has a potency of 19,500 MW but merely 554 MW are presently installed whereas another 536 MW are under building 1 .Renewable beginningPresently installed ( MW )Potential ( MW )Biomass222 16,000Bagasse by sugar3323,500Entire55419,500Beginning Global Energy Network Institute ( GENI Sustainable )To give an overview of the presently installed power from renewable beginnings and their possible harmonizing to the resources of the state, are depicted in the undermentioned tabular arrayRenewable BeginningPresently Installed ( MW )Potential ( MW )Wind Power10,242.5045,195Bio-power703.3016,881Bagasse co-generation1,048.735,000Small hydropower2,429.6715,000Energy from waste92.972,700Solar PV power2.12Biomass / cogenerations170.78Biomass gasifier105.46Entire4,795.53Beginning Ministry of New and Renewable Energy ( MNRE ) , March 2009Even though India has a great sum of resources to develop renewable energy towards the possible capacity, there are besides some restrictions that constrain this potency. Some of these include proficient restrictions, thecountry s economic system, the fiscal state of affairs of the dwellers and the societal accept of the proposed option beginnings fo r bring forthing power are some of import barriers. oddly the fact that India has a great sum of people populating under poorness is a hinder even to the domestic development of renewable engineerings such as little PV systems applied to single houses.2.4.6. PolicyGiven the black current energy scenario and the future chances, the Government of India has put in topographic point several steps that it hopes would take to an moderation of the deficits in the state and a more even distribution of entree to energy. Some cardinal enterprises along these lines are listed belowStructural and regulative Reforms The oil and gas sector was one of the first sectors in which the Government tried to present a much higher degree of liberty by leting the populace sector enterprises to work as corporate entities with their ain Boardss of Directors that would pull off the companies at an arm s length distance from the Government. Private Sector participa-tion in refineries was besides introduced a s a consequence of which the private sector organic structure has a portion of about 30 % in India s refinement capacities today.Energy Conservation dally in 2001 and the Electricity Act in 2003 In the instance of power sector, reforms were introduced in the early 1990 s and, through a procedure of acquisition, India has eventually reached a phase where it has enacted the Energy Conservation Act in 2001 and the Electricity Act in 2003. The Energy Conservation Act requires the constitution of a Bureau of Energy Efficiency as a deemed statutory independent organic structure that would work towards promoting energy efficiency in the state. The Electricity Act 2003 requires the functional unbundling of former vertically incorporate province electricity boards and puts in lace regula-tory committees both at the federal and province degree. heighten Private Sector participation Private sector involvement in the oil and gas sector has built up and much more significantly than in the ins tance of electricity sector because it got an early start and because deformations in the instance of these sec-tors were non terrible as in the instance of electricity.Private Sector Participation in Electricity Sector Despite several attempts towards promoting private sector engagement in electricity coevals and distribution the response from the private sector has been grossly unequal. This has mostly been because of the inability of the distribution concern to bring forth equal grosss to supply an equal return or so comfort that the services would be paid for. Once once more, larning from the past experiences and the demand to rapidly add important capacities, the Government of India launched the Ultra Mega Power Project ( UMPP ) strategy that identify seven sites for puting up large-scale power workss with each site holding a capacity of 4000 MW.Under a strategy launched by the Government called the Rajiv Gandhi Gramin Vidyutikaran Yojana ( RGGVY ) , the Government is easing th e extension of electricity substructure to rural countries through a high capi-tal subsidy but linked to the constitution of franchise distribution agreement at the local degree. 4

Food Inc Essay

diet Inc. opens in an American supermarket and draws attention to the unnatural nature of year-round tomatoes and boneless meat. It pulls aside the curtain that is concealing the truth about intellectual nourishment from the consumer. After the brief intro, the movie shifts its focus to the topic of fast food and its impact on the meat industries. Fast food virtually started with McDonalds. When they decided to simplify their menu and wage employees that repeated one task over and over for minimum wage, the root was the fast food phenomenon that swept the United States, and then the world.Today, McDonalds is the largest purchaser of beef and potatoes in the United States, and is one of the largest purchasers of pork, chicken, tomatoes, and apples. Though an unintentional consequence, this has had a forceful impact on the way all food is processed. The top four meat packers now control over 80% of the market, the Tyson Corporation being the largest of them all. The infotainment next takes us to a Chicken farm in Kentucky and explains that, since the 1950s, chickens have doubled in size, and they reach that incredible size in half the succession it used to take them to reach their more than natural size.Chickens today atomic number 18 genetically modified to have larger breasts in response to the consumer preference for innocence meat. The chickens grow at such a rate that their bones and organs cant keep up with the rapid growth of the muscles, or the meat. The accepted farmer that was followed in the documentary was un suitable to take the filmmakers inside the chicken houses. After being visited multiple times by Tyson representatives, the farmer informed the filmmakers that he would be unable to escort them inside.After a long search, a woman finally stepped forward and agreed to take the filmmakers inside an overly-crowded coop and empennage the veil of the modern chicken industry. The next veil that is lifted by the film is that of the corn indu stry. Corn can be chemically engineered into many various products, such as the extremely unhealthy high-fructose corn syrup. Corn costs more to make than it is worth, so it is subsidized by the government, encouraging even more of its use. Corn is the number one grain used to feed animals for slaughter.Feeding cows corn instead of their natural diet lead to the unintentional groundwork of 157H7 E. coli, a deadly bacteria that can kill. The film reveals how food standards have dropped, with only 9,164 safety inspections from the FDA each year as compared to over 50,000 in 1972. The food industry has become consolidated to the point of a few companies having a great deal of power and influence via the government. The USDA is no longer able to shutdown plants with contaminated meat. A bill titled Kevins Law had the intent of changing that, but, after 6 years, the bill still has not been passed.Food companies have made some attempts to reduce E. coli by cleaning their meats in an amm onia solution. However, unhealthy food is being subsidized and contributing to American obesity and the rise of type 2 diabetes in adolescents. The film then travels to a hog processing plant that kills 32,000 hogs a day. They expose the strategy of the company to hire extremely poor and illegal immigrants who cant afford to quit their jobs, despite problems with frequent infections of the hands and fingernails, a side effect of poor sanitization standards.We then discover that it has been legal to patent life since the 1980s, and learn about the company Monsantos round up resistant soybean that now makes up 90% of the soybean market. Monsanto systematically sues offenders that break copyright laws. Private investigators are hired to monitor and find any infringements. Even if infringement was unavoidable, smaller, neighboring farmers are forced to purchase the round up resistant seeds. Monsanto has a great deal of political influence, with close ties to both parties.Both the Bush a nd Clinton administrations had close ties with Monsanto. entirely the consolidated power of consumers can overcome the political and economical power of the large food processing companies. We owe it to ourselves to use that power to demand healthier, constitutive(a) foods. In a free economy, the consumer has the ultimate power. Just as the tobacco industry was exposed and its power drastically reduced, so too can the insufficient food industry be wrangled into submission.

Nursing Effectivness Concept Paper Essay

Walker & Avants methodology (2005) is used to analyze the concept of the word hard-hitting this appends clarity to the meaning of the concept and identifies its quaint attri thates, particularly in relation to medical discourse. Antecedents and consequences of presumed efficient medical treatment are discussed followed by empirical referents, which aid in illuminating the concept of speciality. Assumedly, trenchant is an adjective most health care professionals and their perseverings would hope to use in describing the outcome of the treatment or the care provided.The purpose of this concept analysis is to understand that for medical students and nurses to provide truly effective treatment, it mustiness attend to multiple needs of the tolerant, not just their ailment. Not only is it important for health care providers to construct and implement a treatment plans, moreover also to involve patients in medical decision making about their treatment. To determine forte, healthcare providers must assess how treatment of the nausea effects the patient in addition to their own evaluation of treatment. The dictionary definitions of effective are (a) adequate to accomplish a purpose, producing the intended or anticipate result (b) in operation or in force, functioning(c) producing a deep or vivid impression (d) prepared and available for service and (e) a member of the armed forces fit for duty or active service (Effective, n.d. a). According to Stedmans Medical Dictionary (2006), the medical definitions of effective are (a) the extent to which a treatment come acrosss its intended purpose (b) A measure of the accuracy or success of a diagnostic or therapeutic technique when carried out in an average clinical environment. According to Wikipedia (n.d. b), the usage of effective includes (a) mathematics, can be used as a synonym of algorithmically computable (b) physics, an effective theory is, similar to a phenomenological theory, a framework intende d to explain certain effects without the claim that the theory correctly models the underlying processes(c) heat transfer, effectiveness is a measure of the performance of a heat exchanger (d) business/management, effectiveness relates to getting the right things done (e) humancomputer interaction, the accuracy and completeness of users tasks age using a system and (f) medicine, effectiveness relates to how tumesce a treatment works in practice. This concept analysis will focus on effectiveness in relation to treating an illness and patient outcome. As previously stated, it is important to consider how treatments can also take for an effect on the patient. A patients illness must acutely be treated, but it is jussive mood to also set long term goals so the most effective and craved outcome can be achieved.Walker & Avant (2005) describe defining, or critical attributes as the characteristics that are most frequently associated with a concept. These attributes are key factors that must be present in defining the concept that is analyzed. Literature reviewed helped determine the characteristics attributed to the concept of effective in terms of nursing and medical treatment including, existence free of disease or illness, come downd discomfort and suffering, scientific support, and improved quality of smell. Another characteristic of effective nursing and medical treatment that should be considered is cost.Patients are sometimes informed about optional medical treatments that are available, but experimental and not yet approved by the FDA, nor covered by ones medical insurance. There are many experimental treatments that have proven to be effective in curing illness but sadly, most cannot afford to stand for these treatments. This also applies if a persons insurance does not cover a specific test, medicine, or treatment. A patients personal experience should also be taken into consideration people with the same illness could receive the same therapy or tr eatment, but have different outcomes.An 11 year old male child presents to the emergency department with an obvious deformity to his left lower leg after falling kill his bike, he is triaged and quickly seen by a doc for treatment. The physician puts a cast on his leg and informs the boys parents that his imperfection is not implicative of surgery and the bone should heal properly while casted. They are told to return in six weeks to have the cast removed and to evaluate the healing progression. The boys parents are then advised of activity restrictions, given a prescription for as needed pain medication and discharged home.They returned six weeks subsequently and reported compliancy with the activity restrictions and he that only complained of pain the first couple days following the injury, which was managed soundly by the prescribed pain medication. The physicians reassessment of the patients leg indicated optimal healing had occurred and the cast was removed, thus achievin g the desired outcome. This case identifies that the patients pain was salutary managed and restrictions on activity were followed.The outcome identifies the patient is free of injury and discomfort, and quality of deportment was not affected, modeling all the critical attributes indicative of effective treatment. An 18 year old male is transported to a hospital via ambulance for an injury he sustained while playing in his high schools football game. It was is reported to the healthcare team that he was tackled to the ground by an opposing player and Due to the risk of injury to his spinal cord and the patient plain of sever back pain, radiological tests were performed. Tests showed in addition to the injury sustained during the game, he also suffered from some degree of spinal stenosis. The physicians explained a need for neighboring(a) treatment as it was imperative to surgically repair the damage to his spine by undergoing a spinal fusion.The physicians also inform them in or der to achieve optimal healing and reduce the risk of further, irreversible long term damage, he will be unable to play football again. This news is very upsetting for the patient because not only is he unable to play again, it was his dream to make football a career and was already accepted to college on a football scholarship. This patient was discharged from the hospital a week after his surgery with outpatient physical therapy sessions if needed and a prescription for pain medication. The healthcare team explained to the patient, despite the possibility of mild back pain, the surgical treatment he underwent was effective.The concept of effective treatment related to this patients injury is that of a borderline case. Although the outcome of his treatment restricts his physical activity, healthcare providers were able to favoredly treat his injury with surgical intervention. Pain medication was prescribed to decrease any discomfort or pain that may occur because from experience and scientific data, healthcare providers are able to recognize what treatments are proven successful to achieve the best outcome for the patient. A 17 year old girl, suffering from anorexia and bulimia, is admitted to the hospital for the fifth time in s pull down months. Every admission, including this one, she has accepted enteral feedings to improve caloric intake and hemodynamic status.The psychological status of this patient is also evaluated by a hospital therapist in addition to current outpatient treatment for her eating disorder. The patients parents voice their concerns to the healthcare team about her deteriorating health status and frustrations with outpatient therapy not creation effective.They are concerned because even though her health status improves with the treatment she receives in the hospital, outpatient therapy is not helping her maintain it. The physicians recognize with her parents concerns and agree she needs intensive therapy from an inpatient facilit y that specializes in eating disorders. However, the patients insurance will not cover extended inpatient treatment and is too expensive for her parents to pay out of pocket, so they must continue treatment that has been seemingly ineffective to her recovery. The outcome in this scenario is that of a contrary case of effective nursing or medical treatment. Although this patient is always acutely treated, she is not free of her disease because she continues to purge food or not eat at all. Her quality of life is also effected due to multiple hospital admits and her daily struggle with food. This patients outpatient therapy shows to be ineffective and sadly she continues to suffer with an eating disorder.It is inbred to discuss related framework to identify and clarify the meaning of an analyzed concept. Walker & Avant (2005) define antecedents as events that must occur prior to the occurrence of the concept. In order for a therapy or treatment to be effective, there first must be a person with an injury or illness who seeks medical care. After an individual has gone to an emergency department, urgent care, or physicians office, they are evaluated by a healthcare team that includes a physician and nurse. Then, the healthcare team diagnosiss the patient before deciding on the type of treatment warranted to treat their injury or illness. Its imperative to include the patient in deciding treatment as active patient involvement in medical decision making improves their quality of life and outcomes from treatment (Egger, 1995. p. 384).When a type of treatment has been determined, it may require the patient to legally consent. The patients healthcare team is responsible for informing them about the treatment and any associated risks that may occur as a result. Once the patients treatment is completed they will be evaluated by the healthcare team, thus resulting in a patient outcome. The consequences, or events that occur as a result of, are the outcomes of a concept (Walker & Avant 2011). The consequences effective medical treatment are improved health status, decreased need for health services, increased patient satisfaction, and healing. All of these outcomes are desired by the patient as well as the healthcare team.These outcomes can have a huge influence on healthcare by providing data for healthcare providers and individuals researching treatment options. Outcomes are the last-ditch test of the effectiveness of medical care. Patient outcomes are clinical endpoints, functional status, general well-being, and satisfaction with medical care (Coyle & Battles, 1999. p. 5). Empirical referents can be expound as actual phenomena that by their actual existence or presence demonstrated the occurrence of a concept, in which is proven useful in musical instrument development (Walker & Avant, 2005). It is important to note that empirical referents measure and relate to the defining attributes of effective, not just the concept itself (Walker & Avan t, 2011). Since effective (medical treatment) is subjective as well as objective, it is essential to consider both phenomena that occur with this concept.Improved health status is the most significant phenomena associated with effective health treatment, both subjectively and objectively, relating to the attribute of being free from illness or injury and quality of life. The healthcare team objectively considers a patients treatment as effective if it has corned illness, resolved injury, or improved quality of life. Scientific research provide healthcare providers with support in determining what medical treatment has proven effective. For patients, aside from being free of illness or injury, quality of life is typically the most important.There are many different treatments that cure illnesses, but sometimes alter a persons quality of life. A patient can be in remission from cancer by receiving radiation and chemotherapy, but also causing a negative impact on their functionality, appearance, and general well-being. In order to determine how treatment has effected a patients quality of life, healthcare providers must formulate their own opinion based off of their knowledge of the patient and assess how the patient feels the treatment has impacted their life.Lastly, a patients use of medical services will be decreased or not needed at all. This analysis of the concept of effective medical treatment is defined as an outcome producing the intended or desired outcome. This concept has also shown to be complex, being that it is subjective as well as objective. Healthcare providers and patients must agree that the treatment was effective to the illness or injury. Effective medical treatment is achieved after a person with an illness or injury seeks medical attention and receives treatment for it. A review of literature on this concept concludes that to improve quality of life and patient satisfaction, the healthcare team must integrate the patients values and pref erences about the intended treatment or therapy (Egger, 1995).ReferencesCoyle, Y. M., & Battles, J. B. (1999). Using antecedents of medical care to develop reasonable qualityof care measures. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 11(1), 5-12. Effective. (n.d. a). In Definitions.net. Retrieved fromhttp//www.definitions.net/definition/effectiveEffective. (n.d. b). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective Egger, M. (1995). Systematic reviews in health care Meta-analysis in context. London Wiley. Stedmans Medical Dictionary. (2006). Effectiveness. Retrieved fromhttp//www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary/effectivnessWalker, L., & Avant, K. (2005). Strategies for theory construction in nursing. (4th ed.).joined States of America Prentice Hall.Walker, L., & Avant, K. (2011). Strategies for theory construction in nursing. (5th ed.).United States of America Prentice Hall.View as multi-pages

Meaning of Working Capital Essay

Working capital refers to the part of total capital which is required for day to day working of the strain. The funds are required by the business for conducting its regular operations much(prenominal) as purchase of raw materials of finished goods, payment of wages & manufacturing expenses, office and administrative expenses, selling & distribution expenses.The funds indispensable for making such regular payments of business is called Working neat therefore have been defined as the amount of funds necessary to cover constitute of operating the enterprise. The working capital of a business enterprise is measured on the basis of its funds locked up in various current assets such as inventors, accounts receivables and cash & bank balance.2.2 Definition of Working CapitalVarious authorities have difined working capital in following manner. (1)Working Capital is the amount of funds necessary to cover the cost of operating the buisness enterprise.(Shuibn) (2)Working Capital is the di fference between the book value of the current assets.and the current liablities.(Hoagland)2.3 move CapitalCirculating capital means current assets of accompany that are changed in the ordinary course of business from into another, as for example from cash to inventories, inventories to receivables and receivables into cash. money Raw Receivables MaterialsFinished goods Work-in-progress2.4. Classification of Working Capital 1. Gross Working Capital5. Variable Working Capital2. Net Working Capital 6. Balance tag Working Capital 3. Negative Working Capital 7. Cash Working Capital 4. Permanent Working Capital2.5. Sources of Working Capital-The following are the some(prenominal) important of the sources of working capital.

Learning Theories Essay

This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of nurture theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia system and communications and education technology for reading purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of accomplishment based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the spirit. A serial publication of links ar provided to further resources on schooling system, neuroscience, and the brain. pic Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We have exclusively experienced a erudition spot when we were so focussed or engulfed in the breeding, that everything else did non matter. Candidly, the raison detre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing muckle our neck or an impending exam was to quantify our level of companionship or intelligence agency or a particular routine necessitated that a skill be larn very quickly.Regardless of the motivating actors for this moment of focussed development, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer designate in their respective theories, as moments of optimum flow or mindfulness. harmonise to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when Alientation physiques way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating more than(prenominal)(prenominal) moments of optimum flow is the line of work of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be crop, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. moreover, certain larn theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely estimators, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. accomplishment is a personal act. We each place our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in force play have our own learning style.Howard Gardners opening of multiple intelligences which accognitions learning as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well cognise descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature. It can at times appear to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not interrogative mood its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is indwelling to our existence as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning slightlything, we no spaciouser take the learning process for granted. It is only and then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened.Learning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simp le a process it may seem, the root of catching how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text will illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology An Introduction, for example, the authors write, Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of slightly intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting stop consonant for the authors to expand their explanation of learning into numerous a(prenominal) other realms, namely the polar theories of learning. They in put up, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to t reasure the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific theory, it is all important(predicate) to recognize that intervention in the learning process can imply many unlike things.The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining doers of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover untried ways of viewing human cognition. The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning.According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels broadcast learning to interactive learning. No longer are todays generation of pren tices satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The benefit generation children using GlobaLearn a web site, are beginning to process learning and learn differently than the boomers before them.New media alikels offer great promise for a in the raw model of learning one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to visit the use of computer technology as learning devices. much(prenominal) rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense?This chapter will answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. pic The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a review of the liter ature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these first harmonic theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn.A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of the associated names of the theory a description of the theory theorists associated with the theory hyperlinks on the World Wide Web draw 1 The two extremes behaviorism Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning.As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their r espective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a condition to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. pic Behaviorism The Associated name of this Theory Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed commission.As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the psychogenic processes of the mind.Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these psychogenic processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the condition of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would ordinarily be associated with an unconditioned stimulus.The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had well-read to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing at the same time with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise).B. F. Skinner expanded on the foot of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either reinforced or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The applied science of Teaching, Skinner wrote The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, solely teachers arrange picky contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise neer occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement through and through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many behaviorist artifacts in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning.The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either at present or throu gh the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A.I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill and formula approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning.Educators have espouse d CAI as an effective teaching approach because it endures for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/theory. hypertext markup language http//tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. hypertext markup languageREF13085 http//www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. hypertext mark-up language pic Constructivism The Associated Names of this TheoryConstructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-direct ed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of ConstructivismThe merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North American population over the past hexad decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment.The design of instruction must be undertaken with desirable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are twain external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these staple fibre ideas be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps.It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of some other view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory set about to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher cen tered and directed.Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was mar of meaningful learning. They as well saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The concluding critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be canalizered to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning.Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of c ognitive development. His four stages, which commence at early childhood and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment.Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine Thus, lookism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special magnificence to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the artisan of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which chi ldren were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences.According to Papert It constuctivsm does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an prospect for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, solely a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the to the lowest degree teaching.Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process.According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to naive realism as more state discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm vary to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions.Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning to day From running(a) to hypermedia. From instruction to construction and discovery. From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. From school to lifelong learning. From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. From learning as torture as learning as fun. From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages http//www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/construct. html http//www. gwu. edu/tip/bruner. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http//lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm pic Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram 2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram 2 (Spectrum Summary)Behav iorism Constructivism Directed Instruction Non-directed Instruction Objectivist Constructivist Teacher-centered Learner-centered Behavioral observations Cognitive operations Focus on the individual base work is emphasized More focussed on one approach More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning.Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and head-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this informat ion is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development.The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to key out this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. twist from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences.The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human sharp ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans.Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html pic Theory of Multiple Intelligences Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human i ntelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes Linguistic intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence Musical intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligenceGardner is working on more intelligences that cut back as cognitive processes Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor-sensory, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence o f humans.Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages http//www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html picLearning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the skittish structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmothers house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethovens Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to drill that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the radical processes by which our brain learns has been enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the accomplishment of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed searchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory.Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiologic models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need normative theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information.Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary fun ction of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society.We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developi ng and maturing. pic The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have among 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the memory board of enormous amounts of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life. pic Brain StructuresThe diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of organic structure systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of aut omatic adjective memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral pallium is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated.Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in d ecision making and conscious thought.To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively potty systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response.Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for incoming use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and attain the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions.At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. just about stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to rationalize the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbi c system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories.Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote.Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories i s essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. pic Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments.These principles include 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues round which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning.Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully polish off students in a learning experience relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a).Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. pic Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video.Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learners brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learners brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is apt(predicate) to be more meaningful and more connected to existing knowledge structures within the learners brain.Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contempor ary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners.Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and t actile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear-cut danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners.We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge opthalmic and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. pic